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2025

Hiss and tell: What influences venom yields of India’s big four snakes?

We investigated how venom yield varies in India’s most medically important snakes and what drives those differences. By analysing venom from hundreds of Spectacled Cobra, Russell's Viper, Common Krait, and both subspecies of Saw-scaled Viper; South Indian and Sochurek's Saw-scaled Viper, across regions and life stages, we found that venom output depends mainly on species, age, and, in some cases, geography, rather than sex or captivity. We show that adults deliver far more venom than younger snakes and that different species balance venom quantity and potency in distinct ways. Together, these insights help explain snakebite severity and inform antivenom production and evolutionary studies of envenomation strategies.

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Deadly innovations: Molecular phylogenetics and evolution of phospholipase A2 toxins in viperid snake venoms

We explored how phospholipase A₂ toxins, one of the most important components of viper venoms, have evolved over time. By reconstructing their evolutionary history, we show that these toxins have diversified repeatedly, giving rise to multiple functional forms and independent origins of neurotoxicity. We also reveal strong signals of both adaptive evolution and structural constraint shaping toxin function. Overall, we highlight venom as a dynamic evolutionary system and emphasize the need for integrated genomic and functional studies to fully understand these deadly innovations.

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Dissecting Daboia: Investigating synergistic effects of Russell's viper venom toxins

We uncovered how different toxins in Russell’s viper venom work together to make the venom far more dangerous than the sum of its parts. By separating and recombining venom components, we showed that metalloproteinases and phospholipases A₂ act synergistically to amplify tissue damage and lethality. We further demonstrated that breaking this synergy can dramatically reduce venom toxicity. These findings shift how we think about venom action and open new avenues for more effective snakebite therapies.

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Explaining Echis: Proteotranscriptomic Profiling of Echis carinatus carinatus Venom

We provided the first comprehensive molecular and functional profile of the Indian saw-scaled viper’s venom. By combining venom gland transcriptomics with proteomic and biochemical analyses, we identified the major toxin families driving pathology and revealed variation even within a single population. We also tested venom lethality and antivenom efficacy in vivo. This work fills a major knowledge gap and strengthens the scientific foundation for improving treatment of saw-scaled viper bites.

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Preclinical evaluation of small molecule inhibitors as early intervention therapeutics against Russell’s viper envenoming in India

We tested whether small molecule drugs could complement or even improve upon traditional antivenom therapy for Russell’s viper bites. Using venoms from across India, we showed that two clinically advanced inhibitors—alone and in combination—can neutralise key venom effects and prevent death, even when treatment is delayed. Our results highlight the promise of affordable, accessible, and fast-acting drugs as future frontline snakebite treatments.

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Deadly innovations: Molecular phylogenetics and evolution of phospholipase A2 toxins in viperid snake venoms

We explored how phospholipase A₂ toxins, one of the most important components of viper venoms, have evolved over time. By reconstructing their evolutionary history, we show that these toxins have diversified repeatedly, giving rise to multiple functional forms and independent origins of neurotoxicity. We also reveal strong signals of both adaptive evolution and structural constraint shaping toxin function. Overall, we highlight venom as a dynamic evolutionary system and emphasize the need for integrated genomic and functional studies to fully understand these deadly innovations.

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Clinical challenges, controversies, and regional strategies in snakebite care in India

We synthesised expert insights from clinicians, researchers, and policymakers to identify the major bottlenecks in snakebite care across India. Through thematic analysis, we highlighted persistent clinical challenges, debated controversial practices, and emphasised the need for region-specific antivenoms and stronger peripheral healthcare systems. This work provides practical guidance for policy reform, training, and research prioritisation to improve snakebite outcomes nationwide.

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Significant Serpents: Predictive Modelling of Bioclimatic Venom Variation in Russell’s Viper

We explored how climate shapes venom function in the world’s most medically important snake. By linking venom enzymatic activity to temperature and rainfall patterns across India, we showed that environmental factors partly explain regional differences in Russell’s viper venom. Using predictive models, we mapped venom phenotypes across the species’ range. These insights connect ecology, evolution, and medicine, and can guide region-specific treatment strategies.

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2024

Structural analysis of an Asterias rubens peptide indicates the presence of a disulfide-directed β-hairpin fold

We revealed that the sea star peptide KASH2 adopts a rare disulfide-directed β-hairpin fold, a structure previously thought to be limited to arachnids. Our findings suggest this fold arose through convergent evolution and may play a role in injury responses in sea stars. Although KASH2 did not promote human wound healing in vitro, our work expands understanding of the evolutionary diversity and potential functions of disulfide-rich peptides.

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Elusive elapids: biogeographic venom variation in Indian kraits and its repercussion on snakebite therapy

We uncovered striking geographic variation in the venom composition and toxicity of the common krait across India. By integrating proteomics, pharmacology, and preclinical testing, we showed that current Indian antivenoms poorly neutralise most krait populations. These results expose a critical gap in snakebite treatment and highlight the urgent need for region-specific or next-generation therapies.

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From birth to bite: the evolutionary ecology of India’s medically most important snake venoms

We demonstrated how ecology and life history shape venom evolution in India’s two deadliest snakes. By tracking venom changes from birth to adulthood, we discovered dramatic ontogenetic shifts in Russell’s viper, where newborns possess far more potent venoms than adults, while cobras maintain stable venom profiles throughout life. Our findings reveal how prey, development, and evolutionary arms races drive venom diversity with direct clinical consequences.

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Harnessing the Cross-Neutralisation Potential of Existing Antivenoms for Mitigating Snakebite in Sub-Saharan Africa

We showed that an existing polyvalent antivenom can neutralise the venoms of many medically important African snakes for which no specific treatments exist. Using preclinical models, we demonstrated strong cross-neutralisation across species and regions. This work offers an immediately deployable strategy to reduce snakebite deaths while next-generation antivenoms are still in development.

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Synthetic development of a broadly neutralizing antibody against snake venom long-chain α-neurotoxins

We developed a synthetic human antibody capable of neutralising a wide range of deadly α-neurotoxins from diverse snake species. By mimicking natural receptor–toxin interactions, this antibody protected animals from lethal envenoming. Our approach provides a powerful blueprint for building universal, monoclonal antibody–based antivenoms.

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2023

The Royal Armoury: Venomics and antivenomics of king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) from the Western Ghats

We delivered the most comprehensive analysis of king cobra venom from India to date. Despite being less complex than cobra venom, we showed that king cobra venom is equally potent—and completely unrecognised by existing Indian and Thai antivenoms. Our findings highlight a dangerous treatment gap and provide critical guidance for managing king cobra bites.

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Fangs in the Ghats: Preclinical insights into the medical importance of pit vipers from the Western Ghats

We demonstrated that pit vipers from the Western Ghats can cause severe and life-threatening envenoming. Through venom profiling and toxicity studies, we showed that current polyvalent antivenoms fail to neutralise their local and systemic effects, including kidney damage. This work exposes the clinical risk posed by neglected snake species and underscores the need for expanded antivenom coverage.

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The deep-rooted origin of disulfide-rich spider venom toxins

We traced the origin of most spider venom toxins back to a single ancient molecular scaffold that emerged over 375 million years ago. By identifying dozens of new toxin families, we showed that spiders rely on a shared ancestral blueprint, unlike other venomous animals. Our findings reveal how venom function and deployment shape evolutionary diversification across one of the largest venomous lineages on Earth.

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2022

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Summary